The Naga Hills go on to merge with the mountains of Patkai in Myanmar. The state is criscrossed with a network of pristine rivers and stream carving their way through steep gorges, nurturing an vibrant ecosystem.
The term ‘Naga’ was originally an arbitrary term to refer to the people living in certain parts of the Assam-Burma hills. Today, Naga tribes and sub tribes reside not only in Nagaland but also in the neighbouring states of Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Nagaland itself is home to over seventeen officially recognized tribes and more than 100 sub-tribes, each with their own unique customs, traditions and beliefs.
Nagaland’s history is one of resilience and strength. Its people have endured conquests, foreign rule, and internal strife over centuries. Despite these challenges, the people of Nagaland have maintained their unique culture and identity that they celebrate and share with utmost honour and pride with the world.
The early history of the Naga hills and its people is shrouded in mystery due to lack of written records and limited archaeological findings, but it is believed that the various tribes that inhabit the region have lived there for thousands of years. Study into the origin of the Nagas and possible migration routes to Nagaland give us many tentative scenarios. Historians think that as part of the Mongoloid stock, they spread from South-East Asia around 12,000 years ago. Others, particularly Nagas, suggest origins linked to the headhunters of Malay or even Northern China from Yunnan or Burma.
Naga history has been passed down through generations via folktales, songs and lore. For instance, Temsula Ao’s poem ‘Stone people of Lungterok’ draws from her Ao Naga origin folktales. ‘Lungterok’ means six and she combines her tribe’s origin myth into her poetry to describe how Ao Nagas emerged from the womb of the earth itself, three men and three women, at a place called Lungterok. Archaeological sites in Nagaland, such as Chungliyimti in Mokochung, offer glimpses into this past, with material artifacts such as sea shell ornaments and inscriptions hinting at migratory lifestyles and having once lived near the sea.
The Naga tribes historically lived in isolated, self-sustained and autonomous villages. Till date, the main identity of many Naga people begins with his or her village. Each village occupied a well demarcated area and ruled by hereditary or elected Chiefs. The Chief was usually the founder of the village and also the main leader during war. Over time, villages grew into tribes that were organised in a clan-based system, and each tribe had its own system of governance and decision-making. Naga villages are usually on hilltops, and were historically well guarded with wall pits and other defences. Each village has a kharu or large wooden village gates at entry and exit carved with sacred symbols of prosperity and power. There are a large number of languages and dialects spoken by Naga people, that were largely oral in nature with no written accounts until the last few decades.
In the 12th and 13th century, the Naga tribes began interacting with the Ahom dynasty in present-day Assam, with the arrival of Chief Sukapha, the first Ahom King, through the Naga Hills and Patkai mountains. These are the earliest records of these tribes collectively being referred to as ‘Nagas’. Periodic incursions of the Nagas down to the plains and of the Ahoms into the mountains have been recorded in the written Ahom records called Buranjis and in local Naga oral folktales. The Ahoms, expanding their territory and seeking to establish control over the fertile plains, often clashed with the Naga tribes. Outside forces met with stiff resistance from the fiercely independent Naga tribes.
Following decades of conflict and bloodshed, a period of Ahom-Naga cooperation emerged. Through policies of diplomacy and reconciliation, there were cordial relations between the Ahoms and the Nagas tribes. Treaties and agreements were formalised to regulate trade and ensure safe passage for traders. The Ahoms implemented the posa system, a tribal appeasement policy involving payments in commodities to deter Naga raids on frontier villages under Ahom Kingdom. In return, Naga tribal chiefs paid tributes to the Ahom kingdom in kind – like elephant tusks, cotton, salt and other hill products, in exchange for their land sovereignty and management of their internal affairs according to their customary laws. Several trade routes, networks and passes (duars) were created with market lands that were revenue free (Naga khats) at foothill locations for commerce. Barter was the primary form of exchange in these markets.
The 17th century saw more structured political and military alliances between the Ahoms and Nagas. The Naga hills often provided refuge for Tai Ahom kings. Prince Godapani escaped to the Naga Hills to evade his enemies. According to Konyak Naga folktales, he fell in love with the eldest daughter of the Wang (Chief), Watlong Wangya, and brought her back to his kingdom as his Queen. The Queen’s wish was to be buried on her land after her death. As such, after her passing, the King buried her in Konyak land and named it Naginimora – currently in Mon District of Nagaland. A monolith in Tanhai Village commemorates this Ahom-Naga relation till date.
Such alliances allowed the Naga tribes to live relatively isolated during the 600-year Ahom rule. It was only after the British conquest of Assam amalgamating to the 1826 Treaty of Yandabo that they came in contact with the British.
The 19th century was a period of encounters and skirmishes between the Nagas and the British colonial powers with military confrontations and socio-political upheavals. Most of the knowledge on the Naga hills during this period comes from British ethnographers, anthropologists and administrators who were focused on protecting British colonial interests. The British cared less about the relatively small populations of these ‘peripheral’ hills and were primarily concerned with controlling strategic trade routes in India’s northeast and into Burma.
From the perspective of the Nagas, the arrival of the British posed a profound threat to their way of life, leading to fierce resistance and conflict. The Naga tribes, particularly the Angamis, continued their raids in the plains which became an issue for now British-occupied Assam: the early conciliatory policies had died with the defeat of Ahoms. Captain Francis Jenkins and Lieutenant Robert Pemberton’s 1832 exploratory mission marked the first significant British encounter with the Naga tribes. Pemberton, in his accounts about the Naga peoples, saw them as powerful people who had resisted the plains kingdoms for decades.
Between 1832 and 1850, a series of British military expeditions responded to Naga raids on British-controlled Assam. The British faced fierce resistance from the Nagas, leading to a decade of following a policy of non interference to avoid casualties. However, by 1866, these policies changed and the British established an outpost at Samaguting (Chümoukedima) to monitor and control Naga activities, marking the beginning of more direct British interference in Naga territories.
DID YOU KNOW?
The Inner Line Permit (ILP) we know of today began as the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation in 1873 under British Rule.
Major conflicts included the 1875 punitive expedition against the Nagas from Wokha village, the 1878 occupation of Kohima, and the 1879 Battle of Khonoma, where the British subdued a stronghold of Naga resistance. By the end of Battle of Khonoma, the British East India Company annexed the Naga Hills and declared it as a British protectorate.
As a number of Naga anthropologists have argued, British conquest of Nagaland was political as well as scientific – there was a proliferation of surveys, ethnographic field reports and administerial documents on the Naga people to aid them in colonisation. Materials and ‘exotic’ objects were removed and transported to be showcased in museums all over the world that created an image of the Naga people as ‘backward’ and culturally ‘uncivilised’. Unfortunately, very little was documented from the eyes of the Nagas.
In 1880, the Naga Hills District was established as part of British India, with Kohima as its headquarters, formally incorporating Naga territories into the British colonial administration. Over the following years, the British established more administrative posts in the interior of the Naga Hills. They implemented economic reforms, taxation systems and educational institutions. Christian missionaries also began to arrive in Nagaland, and they were instrumental in introducing Western education and proselytising Naga people to Christianity. While Christianity replaced traditional religions, missionaries were responsible for introducing education systems, and also preserving Naga identity and languages. For example, around 1885, Rev. D. E. Witter worked with the Lotha Nagas in Wokha, where he developed the first Lotha grammar and vocabulary.
The two World Wars had a significant impact on the culture and history of Nagaland. When the First World War broke out (1914-18), Britain and its allies desperately needed human force and over 2,000 Nagas were enrolled in the labour corps from India, particularly the Lothas, Rengmas and Ao Nagas. The 21st Naga Labour Corps, as they were called, travelled to France and were exempt from paying certain taxes. Many perished during the war; others received a warrior’s welcome upon their return home to Nagaland.
World War I served as a huge political catalyst and awakening of political consciousness among the Nagas who served in the Labour Corps and were fortunate enough to return home. Consequently, the Naga Club was formed in 1918 becoming the precursor to organized Naga political movements. It laid the groundwork for much of the future demand for Naga autonomy in India.
1944: The Battle of Kohima during World War II, where the Allied forces, including Nagas, fought against the Japanese. This battle highlighted the strategic importance of the Naga Hills.
The advent of World Wars and the subsequent Battle of Kohima played a crucial role in the development of Naga nationalism. The Naga Club’s earlier groundwork evolved into more organised demands for greater autonomy as India approached her independence in 1947.
Shortly before India’s independence, the Naga National Council was formed to demand Naga peoples’ autonomy and self-determination, leading to a long-standing insurgency. The movement for a separate ‘Nagalim’ or ‘Great Nagaland’ saw violent confrontations for all Naga people, especially women and children. In the 1950s, the movement turned violent with the formation of many separatist groups. The Indian government declared a state of emergency in the Naga-inhabited areas and launched a military crackdown against Naga separatists. The local people and their families suffered the violence severely with over 4,000 individuals killed during this turbulent time.
In 1963, the state of Nagaland was formally established by the Indian Government, granting it a special status and greater autonomy over its internal affairs. Government and Naga representatives signed a 16-point ceasefire agreement that went into effect in 1964. Since then, the state has experienced phases of political unrest, with several armed insurgent groups demanding more autonomy from the Central Government. In the 1980s, negotiations between the Indian government and the Naga nationalist groups began, and in 1997, the Government of India and the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN [IM]) led by Isak Muivah signed another ceasefire agreement.
The 2015 framework agreement between the Indian Government and the NSCN(IM) was built on shared sovereignty between India and ‘Nagalim’ to finally end the Indo-Naga conflict. Despite numerous peace agreements, the demand for Naga independence continues and remains a contentious issue with divided views among indigenous communities across the state.
Nagaland’s history is a remarkable story of resilience, cultural richness, and a persistent quest for identity and autonomy. From its early days of isolation and self-governance, through periods of conflict and cooperation with neighboring powers, to the tumultuous era of British colonization and the fight for independence, the Nagas have remained steadfast in preserving their heritage. The state’s journey through the modern era has been marked by both challenges and progress, with ongoing efforts towards peace and self-determination. Today, Nagaland’s rich history and vibrant culture continue to inspire resilience and unity among its people who continue to celebrate their unique traditions with pride and honour.
Das, N. (2021). Revisiting Naga Resistance to British Colonialism: A Study of A Naga Village Remembered and Related Historical Texts. In –
Lotha, Abraham. History of Naga Anthropology, 1832-1947. India, Chumpo Museum, 2007.
N. Luthra. “North-East Frontier Agency Tribes: Impact of Ahom and British Policy.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 6, no. 23, 1971, pp. 1143–49.
Nag, S., & Kumar, M.S. (Eds.). (2023). Encounter and Interventions: Christian Missionaries in Colonial North-East India (1st ed.). Routledge.
Udayon Misra. “The Naga National Question.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 13, no. 14, 1978, pp. 618–24.
Von Stockhausen, Alban. “Watlong, the Naga Queen: Negotiating Local Identities through Narratives.” Asian Ethnicity, vol. 17, no. 3, July 2016, pp. 353–69.
